General and later President Dwight D. Eisenhower was not a combat veteran when he was poised to commence one of the greatest combat operations in military and naval history on the Normandy beaches on the early morning of 6 June 1944. He was however fully ready to stand accountable before all in the event that the D-day invasion was a failure. In the time between his decision to launch the invasion on 5 June 1944, and its beginning, he penned an ominous note stating what he would say to the world in the event that the D-day operation failed. His note, perhaps hurriedly penned and mistakenly dated 5 July stated:
“Our landings in Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.”
He told a subordinate that he had written similar notes for all the amphibious invasions he had commanded. This simple note says a great deal about the character of Dwight Eisenhower, and all of the people he commanded from many nations that began the liberation of Europe eighty years ago today.
Eisenhower’s character was no doubt informed by his Midwest, frugal upbringing, and mentorship under Army leaders such as Generals Frederick Funston, Fox Conner, John J. Pershing, and George C Marshall. His complex relationship with General Douglas MacArthur however perhaps best explains the character of the man posed to assume the responsibility for thousands on 6 June. During his long service to MacArthur as a staff officer, Eisenhower was not shy in standing up to his boss despite their significant difference in rank as Eisenhower was just a Major (very much an Iron Major) in Army parlance and MacArthur was already a four-star general. A dispute over a military parade of Philippine Troops in Manila under MacArthur’s command as the Marshal of the Philippine Defense force highlights the future D-day commander’s willingness to speak truth to power. Eisenhower thought the parade, a MacArthur idea, costly and unnecessary for an armed force trying desperately to develop capability. When confronted by Philippine authorities over the cost, MacArthur said it was his subordinates’ idea and that they had exceeded their authority in its proposal. Eisenhower was incensed, stating, “General, all you’re saying is that I’m a liar, and I am not a liar, and so I’d like to go back to the United States right away.” Eisenhower also said, “This misunderstanding caused considerable resentment, and never again were we on the same warm and cordial terms.”
This was not the first time “Ike” had crossed swords with his boss on a public issue. In 1932 when MacArthur was the Army Chief of Staff headquartered at Fort Meyer (just down the way from us here and across route 50.) President Hoover requested him to clear away a large group of World War One veterans protesting the non-payment of govt. bonuses promised when those men enlisted in the U.S. Army. Other elements had joined the protesting veterans and their families and had built a large shantytown encampment just across the Anacostia River from the Capitol. MacArthur donned his service dress unform and prepared to lead the operation in person. Ike tried to dissuade him, later stating, “I told that dumb son-of-a-bitch not to go down there,” he said later. “I told him it was no place for the Chief of Staff.” MacArthur’s troops, with George S Patton leading a cavalry charge and striking retreating bonus marchers with the flat of his sword exceeded his presidential orders to just disperse Bonus marchers from the Capitol. MacArthur crossed Memorial bridge to Anacostia with troops and six small tanks and destroyed the bonus march encampment. Eisenhower later had to author the report of the Army’s activities in the Bonus march which he described as accurately as possible. While President Hoover has held accountable at the ballot box that fall, MacArthur was quietly sent to the Philippines to supervise the emerging nation’s defense. While Eisenhower loyally accompanied his boss there, this incident, and later the parade no-doubt further informed his concept of a leader’s accountability.
Eisenhower’s experiences with MacArthur further informed the good character he displayed in the Second World War, where he had to make a number of tough choices. He fired U.S. General Lloyd Fredendall after the disastrous Battle of Kaserine Pass in February 1943, and flew to his HQ to personally relieve him, albeit in a polite way that did not indicate failure, but rather routine rotation. George S Patton was a popular general, but his slapping of a shell-shocked soldier could not be allowed to go unanswered, and Eisenhower removed Patton from operational command. Finally, Eisenhower had to oppose all of his operational commanders (Patton back in service and British Field Marshall Montgomery,) in their desire for a rapid, war-winning advance to Berlin. Eisenhower was concerned about the ability of the Allied logistics system to support a deep thrust into Germany, and the political realities of the allied occupation zones of Germany that had already been agreed to by political leadership in 1944. Ike’s ability to balance all of these type-A personalities, as well as the ever-present Winston Churchill also say something about Eisenhower’s concept of accountability to a wider mission rather than just his own operational command in Western Europe.
Eisenhower’s good character of course continued into his presidency. He sent federal troops to enforce desegregation of Little Rock, Arkansas schools, and began America’s response to the space race, but he also finished the desegregation of the armed forces begun under Harry Truman’s presidency, began the U.S. response to the Soviet launch of the Sputnik satellite that became the space program, and laid the groundwork for the interstate highway system. Character for Eisenhower also meant being tough on friends and allies when he thought that was the right thing to do, facing up to failed policy choices. Eisenhower opposed Britain, France and Israel occupying the Suez Canal zone after its closure by nationalist Egyptian President Nasser because he believed it would hurt opinion of Western democracies. When U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers was shot down over the Soviet Union on a spy mission in May 1960, Eisenhower bluntly defended the need to gather intelligence and prevent future attacks like Pearl Harbor from again occurring. It is open to debate whether or not Eisenhower was right or wrong, but unlike the example of General MacArthur blaming his aides for the Philippine Army parade fiasco, Ike was willing to step forward and accept responsibility for his choices.
Dwight Eisenhower was by no means perfect. Some historians accuse him of not acting boldly to the demagoguery of Senator Joseph McCarthy, supposedly saying, “I do not want to get down in the gutter with that guy.” Other complaints say Ike did not do enough to prevent the beginning of greater Vietnam involvement and did not better mentor his Vice President Richard Nixon. He was too liberal for some and too conservative for others. Above all though, Eisenhower was committed to full accountability as clearly stated in a note he wrote before the D-day operation in the event that the landings failed.
Dr. Steven Wills, Navalist
The views expressed in this piece are the sole opinions of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Center for Maritime Strategy or other institutions listed.
Center for Maritime Strategy
By Dr. Steven Wills
Figure 1: Former President Eisenhower with Journalist Walter Cronkite in Normandy on the 20th Anniversary of D-day, 1964
General and later President Dwight D. Eisenhower was not a combat veteran when he was poised to commence one of the greatest combat operations in military and naval history on the Normandy beaches on the early morning of 6 June 1944. He was however fully ready to stand accountable before all in the event that the D-day invasion was a failure. In the time between his decision to launch the invasion on 5 June 1944, and its beginning, he penned an ominous note stating what he would say to the world in the event that the D-day operation failed. His note, perhaps hurriedly penned and mistakenly dated 5 July stated:
“Our landings in Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.”
He told a subordinate that he had written similar notes for all the amphibious invasions he had commanded. This simple note says a great deal about the character of Dwight Eisenhower, and all of the people he commanded from many nations that began the liberation of Europe eighty years ago today.
Eisenhower’s character was no doubt informed by his Midwest, frugal upbringing, and mentorship under Army leaders such as Generals Frederick Funston, Fox Conner, John J. Pershing, and George C Marshall. His complex relationship with General Douglas MacArthur however perhaps best explains the character of the man posed to assume the responsibility for thousands on 6 June. During his long service to MacArthur as a staff officer, Eisenhower was not shy in standing up to his boss despite their significant difference in rank as Eisenhower was just a Major (very much an Iron Major) in Army parlance and MacArthur was already a four-star general. A dispute over a military parade of Philippine Troops in Manila under MacArthur’s command as the Marshal of the Philippine Defense force highlights the future D-day commander’s willingness to speak truth to power. Eisenhower thought the parade, a MacArthur idea, costly and unnecessary for an armed force trying desperately to develop capability. When confronted by Philippine authorities over the cost, MacArthur said it was his subordinates’ idea and that they had exceeded their authority in its proposal. Eisenhower was incensed, stating, “General, all you’re saying is that I’m a liar, and I am not a liar, and so I’d like to go back to the United States right away.” Eisenhower also said, “This misunderstanding caused considerable resentment, and never again were we on the same warm and cordial terms.”
This was not the first time “Ike” had crossed swords with his boss on a public issue. In 1932 when MacArthur was the Army Chief of Staff headquartered at Fort Meyer (just down the way from us here and across route 50.) President Hoover requested him to clear away a large group of World War One veterans protesting the non-payment of govt. bonuses promised when those men enlisted in the U.S. Army. Other elements had joined the protesting veterans and their families and had built a large shantytown encampment just across the Anacostia River from the Capitol. MacArthur donned his service dress unform and prepared to lead the operation in person. Ike tried to dissuade him, later stating, “I told that dumb son-of-a-bitch not to go down there,” he said later. “I told him it was no place for the Chief of Staff.” MacArthur’s troops, with George S Patton leading a cavalry charge and striking retreating bonus marchers with the flat of his sword exceeded his presidential orders to just disperse Bonus marchers from the Capitol. MacArthur crossed Memorial bridge to Anacostia with troops and six small tanks and destroyed the bonus march encampment. Eisenhower later had to author the report of the Army’s activities in the Bonus march which he described as accurately as possible. While President Hoover has held accountable at the ballot box that fall, MacArthur was quietly sent to the Philippines to supervise the emerging nation’s defense. While Eisenhower loyally accompanied his boss there, this incident, and later the parade no-doubt further informed his concept of a leader’s accountability.
Eisenhower’s experiences with MacArthur further informed the good character he displayed in the Second World War, where he had to make a number of tough choices. He fired U.S. General Lloyd Fredendall after the disastrous Battle of Kaserine Pass in February 1943, and flew to his HQ to personally relieve him, albeit in a polite way that did not indicate failure, but rather routine rotation. George S Patton was a popular general, but his slapping of a shell-shocked soldier could not be allowed to go unanswered, and Eisenhower removed Patton from operational command. Finally, Eisenhower had to oppose all of his operational commanders (Patton back in service and British Field Marshall Montgomery,) in their desire for a rapid, war-winning advance to Berlin. Eisenhower was concerned about the ability of the Allied logistics system to support a deep thrust into Germany, and the political realities of the allied occupation zones of Germany that had already been agreed to by political leadership in 1944. Ike’s ability to balance all of these type-A personalities, as well as the ever-present Winston Churchill also say something about Eisenhower’s concept of accountability to a wider mission rather than just his own operational command in Western Europe.
Eisenhower’s good character of course continued into his presidency. He sent federal troops to enforce desegregation of Little Rock, Arkansas schools, and began America’s response to the space race, but he also finished the desegregation of the armed forces begun under Harry Truman’s presidency, began the U.S. response to the Soviet launch of the Sputnik satellite that became the space program, and laid the groundwork for the interstate highway system. Character for Eisenhower also meant being tough on friends and allies when he thought that was the right thing to do, facing up to failed policy choices. Eisenhower opposed Britain, France and Israel occupying the Suez Canal zone after its closure by nationalist Egyptian President Nasser because he believed it would hurt opinion of Western democracies. When U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers was shot down over the Soviet Union on a spy mission in May 1960, Eisenhower bluntly defended the need to gather intelligence and prevent future attacks like Pearl Harbor from again occurring. It is open to debate whether or not Eisenhower was right or wrong, but unlike the example of General MacArthur blaming his aides for the Philippine Army parade fiasco, Ike was willing to step forward and accept responsibility for his choices.
Dwight Eisenhower was by no means perfect. Some historians accuse him of not acting boldly to the demagoguery of Senator Joseph McCarthy, supposedly saying, “I do not want to get down in the gutter with that guy.” Other complaints say Ike did not do enough to prevent the beginning of greater Vietnam involvement and did not better mentor his Vice President Richard Nixon. He was too liberal for some and too conservative for others. Above all though, Eisenhower was committed to full accountability as clearly stated in a note he wrote before the D-day operation in the event that the landings failed.
Dr. Steven Wills, Navalist
The views expressed in this piece are the sole opinions of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Center for Maritime Strategy or other institutions listed.